03_compiler.scala

/**

# (Chapter 0) Intro: Not your Grandfather's Compiler
<a name="chap:300"></a>

This part discusses compiler internals.  How do embedded compilers compile
their programs?

Outline:
<div id="tableofcontents"></div>

The purely string based representation of staged programs from [Part
2](02_basics.html) does  not allow analysis or transformation of embedded
programs. Since LMS is not inherently tied to a particular program
representation it is very easy to pick one that is better suited for
optimization. As a first cut, we switch to an intermediate representation (IR)
based on expression trees, adding a level of indirection  between construction
of object programs and code generation (see [below](#chap:310trees)). On this
tree IR we can define traversal and transformation passes and build a
straightforward embedded compiler. We can add new IR node types  and new
transformation passes that implement domain specific optimizations. In
particular we can use multiple passes of staging: While traversing
(effectively, interpreting) one IR we can execute staging commands to build
another staged program, possibly in a different,  lower-level object language.

However the extremely high degree of extensibility poses serious challenges.
In particular, the interplay of optimizations implemented as many separate
phases does not yield good results due to the phase ordering problem: It  is
unclear in which order and how often to execute these phases, and since each
optimization pass  has to make pessimistic assumptions about the outcome of
all other passes  the global result is often suboptimal compared to a
dedicated, combined  optimization phase
[(*)](veldhuizen:combiningoptimizations,click95combineanalysis).  There are
also implementation challenges as each optimization needs to be  designed to
treat unknown IR nodes in a sensible way.

Other challenges are due to the fact that embedded compilers are supposed to
be used like libraries. Extending an embedded compiler should be easy, and as
much of the work as possible should be delegated to a library of compiler
components. Newly defined high-level IR nodes should  profit from generic
optimizations automatically.


To remedy this situation, we switch to a graph-based ''sea of nodes''
representation (see [below](#chap:320graphs)). This representation links
definitions and uses, and it also reflects the program block structure via
nesting edges. We consider purely functional programs first. A number of
nontrivial optimizations become considerably simpler. Common subexpression
elimination (CSE) and dead  code elimination (DCE) are particularly easy. Both
are completely generic and support an open domain of IR node types.
Optimizations that can be expressed as context-free rewrites are also easy to
add in a modular fashion. A scheduling and code motion algorithm transforms
graphs back into trees, moving  computations to places where they are less
often executed, e.g. out of loops or functions.  Both graph-based and tree-
based transformations are useful: graph-based transformations are usually
simpler and more efficient whereas tree-based  transformations, implemented as
multiple staging passes, can be more powerful and employ arbitrary context-
sensitive information.

To support effectful programs, we make effects explicit in the dependency
graph  (similar to SSA form). We can support simple effect domains (pure vs
effectful)  and more fine grained ones, such as tracking modifications per
allocation site.  The latter one relies on alias and points-to analysis.


We then turn to advanced optimizations (see [below](#chap:330opt)). For
combining analyses and optimizations, it is crucial to maintain optimistic
assumptions for all analyses. The key challenge is that one analysis has to
anticipate the effects of the other transformations. The solution is
speculative rewriting [(*)](lerner02composingdataflow): transform a program
fragment  in the presence of partial and possibly unsound analysis results and
re-run the analyses on the transformed code until a fixpoint is reached. This
way, different analyses can communicate through the transformed code and  need
not anticipate their results in other ways. Using speculative rewriting, we
compose  many optimizations into more powerful combined passes. Often, a
single forward simplification pass that can be used to clean up after non-
optimizing  transformations is sufficient.

However not all rewrites can fruitfully be combined into a single phase. For
example, high-level representations of linear algebra operations may give rise
to rewrite rules like $I M \rightarrow M$ where $I$ is the identity matrix. At
the same time, there may be rules that define how a matrix multiplication can
be implemented in terms of arrays and while loops, or a call to an external
library (BLAS).  To be effective, all the high-level simplifications need to
be applied exhaustively before any of the lowering transformations are
applied. But lowering transformations may create new opportunities for high-
level rules, too. Our solution here is delayed rewriting: programmers can
specify that a  certain rewrite should not be applied right now, but have it
registered to be executed at the next iteration of a particular phase. Delayed
rewriting thus provides a way of grouping and prioritizing modularly defined
transformations.


On top of this infrastructure, we build a number of advanced optimizations. A
general pattern is split and merge: We split operations and data structures in
order to expose their components to rewrites and dead-code  elimination and
then merge the remaining parts back together. This struct transformation  also
allows for more general data structure conversions, including array-of-struct
to struct-of-array representation conversion. Furthermore we present a novel
loop fusion algorithm, a powerful transformation that removes intermediate
data structures.


# (Chapter 1) Intermediate Representation: Trees
\label{chap:310trees}

With the aim of generating code, we could represent staged expressions
directly as strings, as done in [Part 2](02_basics.html). But for optimization
purposes we would rather have a structured intermediate representation that we
can analyze in various ways. Fortunately, LMS makes it very easy to use a
different internal program representation.

# Trees Instead of Strings
\label{sec:301}

Our starting point is an object language _interface_ derived from
[Part 2](02_basics.html):

    trait Base {
      type Rep[T]
    }
    trait Arith extends Base {
      def infix_+(x: Rep[Double], y: Rep[Double]): Rep[Double]
      def infix_*(x: Rep[Double], y: Rep[Double]): Rep[Double]
      ...
    }
    trait IfThenElse extends Base  {
      def __ifThenElse[T](c: Rep[Boolean], a: =>Rep[T], b: =>Rep[T]): Rep[T]
    }

The goal will be to build a corresponding _implementation_ hierarchy that
supports optimizing compilation.

Splitting interface and implementation has many advantages, most importantly a
clear separation between the user program world and the compiler
implementation world.  For the sake of completeness, let us briefly recast the
string representation  in this model:

    trait BaseStr extends Base {
      type Rep[T] = String
    }
    trait ArithStr extends BaseStr with Arith {
      def infix_+(x: Rep[Double], y: Rep[Double]) = perform(x + " + " + y)
      def infix_*(x: Rep[Double], y: Rep[Double]) = perform(x + " * " + y)
      ...
    }
    trait IfThenElseStr extends BaseStr with IfThenElse  {
      def __ifThenElse[T](c: Rep[Boolean], a: =>Rep[T], b: =>Rep[T]) =
        perform("if (" + c + ") " + accumulate(a) + " else " + accumulate(b))
    }


In this chapter, we will use an IR that is based on expression trees, closely
resembling the abstract syntax tree (AST) of a staged program. This
representation enables separate analysis,  optimization and code generation
passes. We will use the following types:

    type Exp[T]     // atomic:     Sym, Const
    type Def[T]     // composite:  Exp + Exp, Exp * Exp, ...
    type Stm[T]     // statement:  val x = Def
    type Block[T]   // blocks:     { Stm; ...; Stm; Exp }

They are defined as follows in a separate trait:

    trait Expressions {
      // expressions (atomic)
      abstract class Exp[T]
      case class Const[T](x: T) extends Exp[T]
      case class Sym[T](n: Int) extends Exp[T]
      def fresh[T]: Sym[T]

      // definitions (composite, subclasses provided by other traits)
      abstract class Def[T]

      // statements
      case class Stm[T](sym: Sym[T], rhs: Def[T])

      // blocks
      case class Block[T](stms: Stm[_], res: Exp[T])

      // perform and accumulate
      def reflectStm[T](d: Stm[T]): Exp[T]
      def reifyBlock[T](b: =>Exp[T]): Block[T]

      // bind definitions to symbols automatically
      // by creating a statement
      implicit def toAtom[T](d: Def[T]): Exp[T] =
        reflectStm(Stm(fresh[T], d))
    }

This trait `Expressions` will be mixed in at the root of the object language
implementation hierarchy. The guiding principle  is that each definition has
an associated symbol and refers to other definitions only via their symbols.
This means that every  composite value will be named, similar to
administrative normal form (ANF). Methods `reflectStm` and `reifyBlock` take
over the responsibility of `perform`  and `accumulate`.

## Modularity: Adding IR Node Types

We observe that there are no concrete definition classes provided by trait
`Expressions`. Providing meaningful data types is the responsibility of other
traits that implement the interfaces defined previously (`Base` and its
descendents).

Trait `BaseExp` forms the root of the implementation hierarchy and installs
atomic expressions as the representation of staged values by defining
`Rep[T] = Exp[T]`:

    trait BaseExp extends Base with Expressions {
      type Rep[T] = Exp[T]
    }

For each interface trait, there is one corresponding core implementation
trait. Shown below, we have traits `ArithExp` and `IfThenElseExp` as the
running example.  Both traits define one definition class for each operation
defined by `Arith` and `IfThenElse`, respectively, and implement the
corresponding interface methods to create instances of those classes.

    trait ArithExp extends BaseExp with Arith {
      case class Plus(x: Exp[Double], y: Exp[Double]) extends Def[Double]
      case class Times(x: Exp[Double], y: Exp[Double]) extends Def[Double]
      def infix_+(x: Rep[Double], y: Rep[Double]) = Plus(x, y)
      def infix_*(x: Rep[Double], y: Rep[Double]) = Times(x, y)
      ...
    }
    trait IfThenElseExp extends BaseExp with IfThenElse {
      case class IfThenElse(c: Exp[Boolean], a: Block[T], b: Block[T]) extends Def[T]
      def __ifThenElse[T](c: Rep[Boolean], a: =>Rep[T], b: =>Rep[T]): Rep[T] =
        IfThenElse(c, reifyBlock(a), reifyBlock(b))
    }

The framework ensures that code that contains staging operations will always
be executed within the dynamic scope of at least one invocation  of
`reifyBlock`, which returns a block object and takes as call-by-name argument
the present-stage expression  that will compute the staged block result. Block
objects can be part of definitions, e.g. for loops or conditionals.

Since all operations in interface traits such as `Arith` return `Rep` types,
equating `Rep[T]` and `Exp[T]` in trait `BaseExp` means that conversion to
symbols will take place already  within those methods. This fact is important
because it establishes our correspondence between the evaluation order of the
program generator and the evaluation order of the generated program: at the
point where the generator calls `toAtom`, the composite definition is turned
into an atomic value via `reflectStm`, i.e. its evaluation will be recorded
now and played back later in the same relative order with respect to others
within the closest `reifyBlock`  invocation.





# Enabling Analysis and Transformation

Given our IR representation it is easy to add traversals and transformations.

## Modularity: Adding Traversal Passes

All that is needed to define a generic in-order traversal is a way to access
all blocks immediately contained in a definition:

    def blocks(x: Any): List[Block[Any]]

For example, applying `blocks` to an `IfThenElse` node will return the then
and else blocks. Since definitions are case classes, this method is easy  to
implement by using the `Product` interface that all case classes implement.

The basic structural in-order traversal is then defined like this:

    trait ForwardTraversal {
      val IR: Expressions
      import IR._
      def traverseBlock[T](b: Block[T]): Unit = b.stms.foreach(traverseStm)
      def traverseStm[T](s: Stm[T]): Unit = blocks(s).foreach(traverseBlock)
    }


Custom traversals can be implemented in a modular way by extending the
`ForwardTraversal` trait:

    trait MyTraversalBase extends ForwardTraversal {
      val IR: BaseExp
      import IR._
      override def traverseStm[T](s: Stm[T]) = s match {
        // custom base case or delegate to super
        case _ => super.traverseStm(s)
      }
    }
    trait MyTraversalArith extends MyTraversalBase {
      val IR: ArithExp
      import IR._
      override def traverseStm[T](s: Stm[T]) = s match {
        case Plus(x,y) => ... // handle specific nodes
        case _ => super.traverseStm(s)
      }
    }

For each unit of functionality such as `Arith` or `IfThenElse` the traversal
actions can be defined separately as `MyTraversalArith` and
`MyTraversalIfThenElse`.

Finally, we can use our traversal as follows:

    trait Prog extends Arith {
      def main = ... // program code here
    }
    val impl = new Prog with ArithExp
    val res = impl.reifyBlock(impl.main)
    val inspect = MyTraversalArith { val IR: impl.type = impl }
    inspect.traverseBlock(res)





## Solving the ''Expression Problem''

In essence, traversals confront us with the classic ''expression problem'' of
independently extending a data model with new data variants and  new
operations [(*)](wadlerExprProblem). There are many solutions to this problem
but most of them are rather heavyweight. More lightweight implementations are
possible in languages that support  multi-methods, i.e. dispatch method calls
dynamically based on the actual types of all the arguments.  We can achieve
essentially the same using pattern matching and mixin composition, making use
of the fact  that composing traits is subject to linearization
[(*)](DBLP:conf/oopsla/OderskyZ05). We package each set of specific traversal
rules into its own trait, e.g. `MyTraversalArith` that inherits from
`MyTraversalBase` and overrides `traverseStm`. When the arguments do not match
the rewriting pattern, the overridden method will invoke the ''parent''
implementation using `super`. When several such traits are combined, the super
calls will traverse the overridden method implementations according to the
linearization order of their containing traits.  The use of pattern matching
and super calls is similar to earlier work on extensible algebraic data types
with defaults [(*)](DBLP:conf/icfp/ZengerO01), which supported linear
extensions but not composition of independent extensions.

Implementing multi-methods in a statically typed setting usually poses three
problems: separate type checking/compilation, ensuring non-ambiguity and
ensuring exhaustiveness. The described encoding supports separate
type-checking and compilation in as far as traits do. Ambiguity is ruled out
by always following the linearization order and the first-match semantics of
pattern matching. Exhaustiveness is ensured at the type level by requiring a
default implementation, although no guarantees can be made that the default
will not choose to throw an exception at runtime. In the particular case of
traversals, the default is always safe and will just continue the structural
traversal.

## Generating Code

Code generation is just a traversal pass that prints code. Compiling and
executing code can use the same mechanism as described
[above](#sec:230codegen).


## Modularity: Adding Transformations

Transformations work very similar to traversals. One option is to traverse and
transform an existing program more or less in place, not actually modifying
data  but attaching new Defs to existing Syms:

    trait SimpleTransformer {
      val IR: Expressions
      import IR._
      def transformBlock[T](b: Block[T]): Block[T] =
        Block(b.stms.flatMap(transformStm), transformExp(b.res))
      def transformStm[T](s: Stm[T]): List[Stm] =
        List(Stm(s.lhs, transformDef(s.rhs)))   // preserve existing symbol s
      def transformDef[T](d: Def[T]): Def[T]    // default: use reflection
                                                // to map over case classes
    }


An implementation is straightforward:

    trait MySimpleTransformer extends SimpleTransformer {
      val IR: IfThenElseExp
      import IR._
      // override transformDef for each Def subclass
      def transformDef[T](d: Def[T]): Def[T] = d match {
        case IfThenElse(c,a,b) =>
          IfThenElse(transformExp(c), transformBlock(a), transformBlock(b))
        case _ => super.transformDef(d)
      }
    }


## Transformation by Iterated Staging
\label{sec:310treeTrans}

Another option that is more principled and in line with the idea of making
compiler transforms programmable through the use of staging is to traverse the
old program and create a new program. Effectively we are implementing an IR
interpreter that executes staging commands, which greatly simplifies the
implementation of the transform and removes the need for low-level IR
manipulation.

In the implementation, we will create new symbols instead of reusing existing
ones so we need to maintain a substitution that maps old to new Syms. The core
implementation is given below:

    trait ForwardTransformer extends ForwardTraversal {
      val IR: Expressions
      import IR._
      var subst: Map[Exp[_],Exp[_]]
      def transformExp[T](s: Exp[T]): Exp[T] = ... // lookup s in subst
      def transformDef[T](d: Def[T]): Exp[T]       // default
      def transformStm[T](s: Stm[T]): Exp[T] = {
        val e = transformDef(s.rhs); subst += (s.sym -> e); e
      }
      override def traverseStm[T](s: Stm[T]): Unit = {
        transformStm(s)
      }
      def reflectBlock[T](b: Block[T]): Exp[T] = withSubstScope {
        traverseBlock(b); transformExp(b.res)
      }
      def transformBlock[T](b: Block[T]): Block[T] = {
        reifyBlock(reflectBlock(b))
      }
    }


Here is a simple identity transformer implementation for conditionals and
array construction:

    trait MyTransformer extends ForwardTransformer {
      val IR: IfThenElseExp with ArraysExp
      import IR._
      def transformDef[T](d: Def[T]): Exp[T] = d match {
        case IfThenElse(c,a,b) =>
          __ifThenElse(transformExp(c), reflectBlock(a), reflectBlock(b))
        case ArrayFill(n,i,y) =>
          arrayFill(transformExp(n), { j => withSubstScope(i -> j) { reflectBlock(y) }})
        case _ => ...
      }
    }


The staged transformer facility can be extended slightly to translate not only
within a single  language but also between two languages:

    trait FlexTransformer {
      val SRC: Expressions
      val DST: Base
      trait TypeTransform[A,B]
      var subst: Map[SRC.Exp[_],DST.Rep[_]]
      def transformExp[A,B](s: SRC.Exp[A])(implicit t: TypeTransform[A,B]): DST.Rep[B]
    }


It is also possible to add more abstraction on top of the base transforms to
build  combinators for rewriting strategies in the style of Stratego
[(*)](spoofax) or  Kiama [(*)](DBLP:conf/gttse/Sloane09).


# Problem: Phase Ordering

This all works but is not completely satisfactory.  With fine grained separate
transformations we immediately run into phase ordering problems
[(*)](veldhuizen:combiningoptimizations,click95combineanalysis).  We could
execute optimization passes in a loop until we reach a fixpoint but even then
we may miss opportunities if the program contains loops. For best results,
optimizations need to be tightly integrated. Optimizations need a different
mechanisms than lowering transformations that have a clearly defined  before
and after model. In the next chapter, we will thus consider a slightly
different IR  representation.




# (Chapter 2) Intermediate Representation: Graphs
\label{chap:320graphs}

To remedy phase ordering problems and overall allow for more flexibility in
rearranging program pieces,  we switch to a program representation based on
structured graphs. This representation is not to be confused with control-flow
graphs (CFGs): Since one of our main goals is parallelization, a sequential
CFG would not be a good fit.




# Purely Functional Subset
\label{sec:303purefun}


Let us first consider a purely functional language subset. There are much more
possibilities for aggressive optimizations.  We can rely on referential
transparency: The value of an expression is always the same, no matter when
and where it is computed.  Thus, optimizations do not need to check
availability or lifetimes of expressions. Global common subexpression
elimination (CSE), pattern rewrites, dead code elimination (DCE) and code
motion are considerably simpler than the usual implementations for imperative
programs.

We switch to a ''sea of nodes''-like [(*)](DBLP:conf/irep/ClickP95)
representation that is a directed  (and for the moment, acyclic) graph:

    trait Expressions {
      // expressions (atomic)
      abstract class Exp[T]
      case class Const[T](x: T) extends Exp[T]
      case class Sym[T](n: Int) extends Exp[T]
      def fresh[T]: Sym[T]

      // definitions (composite, subclasses provided by other traits)
      abstract class Def[T]

      // blocks -- no direct links to statements
      case class Block[T](res: Exp[T])

      // bind definitions to symbols automatically
      // by creating a statement
      implicit def toAtom[T](d: Def[T]): Exp[T] =
        reflectPure(d)

      def reifyBlock[T](b: =>Exp[T]): Block[T]
      def reflectPure[T](d: Def[T]): Sym[T] =
        findOrCreateDefinition(d)

      def findDefinition[T](s: Sym[T]): Option[Def[T]]
      def findDefinition[T](d: Def[T]): Option[Sym[T]]
      def findOrCreateDefinition[T](d: Def[T]): Sym[T]
    }

It is instructive to compare the definition of trait `Expressions` with the
one from the previous [chapter](#chap:310trees). Again there are three
categories of objects involved: expressions,  which are atomic (subclasses of
`Exp`: constants and symbols; with a ''gensym'' operator `fresh` to create
fresh symbols), definitions, which represent composite operations (subclasses
of `Def`, to be provided by other components), and blocks, which model nested
scopes.

Trait `Expressions` now provides methods to find a definition given a symbol
or vice versa.  Direct links between blocks and statements are removed. The
actual graph nodes are `(Sym[T], Def[T])` pairs. They need not be accessible
to clients at this level. Thus method `reflectStm` from the previous chapter
is replaced by `reflectPure`.

Graphs also carry nesting information (boundSyms, see below). This enables
code motion for different kinds of nested expressions such as lambdas, not
only for loops or conditionals. The structured graph representation is also
more appropriate for parallel execution than the traditional sequential
control-flow graph. Pure  computation can float freely in the graph and can be
scheduled for execution anywhere.


# Modularity: Adding IR Node Types

The object language implementation code is the same compared to the tree
representation:

    trait BaseExp extends Base with Expressions {
      type Rep[T] = Exp[T]
    }

Again, we have separate traits, one for each unit of functionality:

    trait ArithExp extends BaseExp with Arith {
      case class Plus(x: Exp[Double], y: Exp[Double]) extends Def[Double]
      case class Times(x: Exp[Double], y: Exp[Double]) extends Def[Double]
      def infix_+(x: Rep[Double], y: Rep[Double]) = Plus(x, y)
      def infix_*(x: Rep[Double], y: Rep[Double]) = Times(x, y)
      ...
    }
    trait IfThenElseExp extends BaseExp with IfThenElse {
      case class IfThenElse(c: Exp[Boolean], a: Block[T], b: Block[T]) extends Def[T]
      def __ifThenElse[T](c: Rep[Boolean], a: =>Rep[T], b: =>Rep[T]): Rep[T] =
        IfThenElse(c, reifyBlock(a), reifyBlock(b))
    }



# Simpler Analysis and More Flexible Transformations

Several optimizations are very simple to implement on this purely functional
graph IR. The implementation draws inspiration from previous work on compiling
embedded DSLs [(*)](DBLP:conf/saig/ElliottFM00,DBLP:conf/dsl/LeijenM99) as
well as staged FFT kernels [(*)](DBLP:conf/emsoft/KiselyovST04).

## Common Subexpression Elimination/Global Value Numbering
\label{sec:320cse}

Common subexpressions are eliminated during IR construction using hash
consing:

    def findOrCreateDefinition[T](d: Def[T]): Sym[T]


Invoked by `reflectPure` through the implicit conversion  method `toAtom`,
this method converts a definition to an atomic expression and links it to the
scope being built up by the innermost enclosing `reifyBlock` call. When the
definition is known to be side-effect free, it will search the already
encountered definitions for a structurally equivalent one.  If a matching
previous definition is found, its symbol will be returned, possibly moving the
definition to a parent scope to make it accessible.  If the definition may
have side effects or it is seen  for the first time, it will be associated
with a fresh symbol and saved for future reference.  This simple scheme
provides a powerful global value numbering optimization
[(*)](DBLP:conf/pldi/Click95) that effectively prevents generating duplicate
code.


## Pattern Rewrites

Using `findDefinition`, we can implement an extractor object
[(*)](DBLP:conf/ecoop/EmirOW07) that enables pattern matching on a symbol to
lookup the underlying definition associated to the symbol:

    object Def {
      def unapply[T](s: Exp[T]): Option[Def[T]] = s match {
        case s: Sym[T] => findDefinition(s)
        case _ => None
      }
    }

This extractor object can be used to implement smart
constructors for IR nodes that deeply inspect their arguments:

    def infix_*(x: Exp[Double], y: Exp[Double]) = (x,y) match {
      case (Const(x), Const(y)) => Const(x * y)
      case (Const(k), Def(Times(Const(l), y))) => Const(k * l) * y
      case _ => Times(x,y)
    }

Smart constructors are a simple yet powerful rewriting facility. If the smart
constructor is the only way to construct `Times` nodes we obtain a strong
guarantee: No `Times` node is ever created without applying all possible
rewrites first.


## Modularity: Adding new Optimizations
\label{sec:308addOpts}

Some profitable optimizations, such as the global value numbering described
above, are very generic. Other optimizations apply only to specific aspects of
functionality, for example particular implementations of constant folding (or
more generally symbolic rewritings) such as replacing computations like
`x * 1.0` with `x`. Yet other optimizations are specific to the actual program
being staged. Kiselyov et al. [(*)](DBLP:conf/emsoft/KiselyovST04) describe  a
number of rewritings that are particularly effective for the patterns of code
generated by a staged FFT algorithm but not as much for other programs. The
FFT example is discussed  in more detail [here](#sec:Afft).

What we want to achieve again is modularity, so that optimizations can be
combined in a way that is most useful for a given task.  To implement a
particular rewriting rule (whether specific or generic), say, `x * 1.0`
$\rightarrow$ `x`, we can provide a specialized implementation of `infix_*`
(overriding the one in trait `ArithExp`) that will test its arguments for a
particular pattern. How this can be done in a modular way is shown by the
traits `ArithExpOpt` and `ArithExpOptFFT`, which implement some generic and
program specific optimizations. Note that the use of `x*y` within the body of
`infix_*` will apply the optimization recursively.

The appropriate pattern is to override the smart constructor in a separate
trait and call the super implementation if no rewrite matches. This decouples
optimizations from node type definitions.

    trait ArithExpOpt extends ArithExp {
      override def infix_*(x:Exp[Double],y:Exp[Double]) = (x,y) match {
        case (Const(x), Const(y)) => Const(x * y)
        case (x, Const(1)) => x
        case (Const(1), y) => x
        case _ => super.infix_*(x, y)
      }
    }
    trait ArithExpOptFFT extends ArithExp {
      override def infix_*(x:Exp[Double],y:Exp[Double]) = (x,y) match {
        case (Const(k), Def(Times(Const(l), y))) => Const(k * l) * y
        case (x, Def(Times(Const(k), y))) => Const(k) * (x * y))
        case (Def(Times(Const(k), x)), y) => Const(k) * (x * y))
        ...
        case (x, Const(y)) => Const(y) * x
        case _ => super.infix_*(x, y)
      }
    }

Note that the trait linearization order defines the rewriting strategy. We
still maintain our guarantee that no `Times` node could be rewritten further.

\begin{figure*}\centering
  \includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{papers/cacm2012/figoverview.pdf}
  \caption{\label{fig:overview}Component architecture. Arrows denote extends relationships,
  dashed boxes represent units of functionality.}
  \vspace{1cm}
\end{figure*}

Figure~\ref{fig:overview} shows the component architecture formed by base
traits and corresponding optimizations.


## Context- and Flow-Sensitive Transformations

Context and flow sensitive transformation become very important once we
introduce effects. But even pure functional programs can profit  from context
information:

    if (c) { if (c) a else b } else ...

The inner test on the same condition is redundant and will always succeed. How
do we detect this situation? In other cases we can use the Def extractor to
lookup the definition of a symbol. This will not work here, because Def works
on Exp input and produces a Def object as output.  We however need to work on
the level of Exps, turning a Sym into `Const(true)` based on context
information.

We need to adapt the way we construct IR nodes. When we enter the then
branch, we add `c$\rightarrow$Const(true)` to a substitution. This
substitution needs to be applied  to arguments of IR nodes constructed within
the then branch.

One possible solution would be add yet another type constructor, `Ref`, with
an implicit conversion from Exp to Ref that applies the substitution. A
signature like `IfThenElse(c: Exp, ...)` would become `IfThenElse(c: Ref,
...)`. A simpler solution is to implement `toAtom` in such a way that it
checks the resulting Def if any of its inputs need substitution and if so
invoke `mirror` (see below) on the result  Def, which will apply the
substitution, call the appropriate smart constructor and finally call `toAtom`
again with the transformed result.


## Graph Transformations

In addition to optimizations performed during graph constructions, we can also
implement transformation that work directly on the graph structure. This is
useful if  we need to do analysis on a larger portion of the program first and
only then apply the transformation. An example would be to find all `FooBar`
statements in a graph, and replace them uniformly with `BarBaz`. All dependent
statements should re-execute their pattern rewrites, which might trigger on
the new `BarBaz` input.

We introduce the concept of _mirroring_: Given an IR node, we want to apply a
substitution (or generally, a `Transformer`) to the arguments and  call the
appropriate smart constructor again. For every IR node type we require a
default `mirror` implementation  that calls back its smart constructor:

    override def mirror[A](e: Def[A], f: Transformer): Exp[A] = e match {
      case Plus(a,b) => f(a) + f(b) // calls infix_+
      case Times(a,b) => f(a) * f(b)
      case _ => super.mirror(e,f)
    }


There are some restrictions if we are working directly on the graph level: In
general we have no (or only limited) context information because a single IR
node may occur multiple times in the final program. Thus, attempting to
simplify effectful or otherwise context-dependent expressions will produce
wrong results  without an appropriate context. For pure expressions, a smart
constructor called from `mirror` should not  create new symbols apart from the
result and it should not call reifyBlock.  Otherwise, if we were creating new
symbols when  nothing changes, the returned symbol could not be used to check
convergence of an iterative transformation easily.

The `Transfomer` argument to `mirror` can be
queried to find out whether `mirror` is allowed to call context
dependent methods:

    override def mirror[A](e: Def[A], f: Transformer): Exp[A] = e match {
      case IfThenElse(c,a,b) =>
        if (f.hasContext)
          __ifThenElse(f(c),f.reflectBlock(a),f.reflectBlock(b))
        else
          ifThenElse(f(c),f(a),f(b)) // context-free version
      case _ => super.mirror(e,f)
    }

If the context is guaranteed to be set up correctly, we call the regular smart
constructor and use `f.reflectBlock` to call mirror recursively on the
contents of blocks `a` and `b`.  Otherwise, we call a more restricted context
free method.






## Dead Code Elimination

Dead code elimination can be performed purely on the graph level, simply by
finding all statements  reachable from the final result and discarding
everything else.

We define a method to find all symbols a given object references directly:

    def syms(x: Any): List[Sym[Any]]

If `x` is a Sym itself, `syms(x)` will return `List(x)`. For a case class
instance  that implements the `Product` interface such as `Times(a,b)`, it
will return `List(a,b)` if both `a` and `b` are Syms. Since the argument type
is `Any`, we can apply `syms` not  only to Def objects directly but also to
lists of Defs, for example.

Then, assuming `R` is the final program result, the set of remaining symbols
in the  graph `G` is the least fixpoint of:

    G = R $\cup$ syms(G map findDefinition)

Dead code elimination will discard all other nodes.

# From Graphs Back to Trees

To turn program graphs back into trees for code generation we have to decide
which graph nodes should go where in the resulting program. This is the task
of code motion.

## Code Motion
\label{sec:320codemotion}

Other optimizations can apply transformations optimistically and need not
worry  about maintaining a correct schedule: Code motion will fix it up.  The
algorithm will try to push statements inside conditional branches and hoist
statements out of loops. Code motion depends on dependency and frequency
information but not directly on data-flow information. Thus it can treat
functions or other user defined compound statements in the same way as loops.
This makes  our algorithm different from code motion algorithms based on data
flow  analysis such as Lazy Code Motion (LCM, [(*)](DBLP:conf/pldi/KnoopRS92))
or Partial Redundancy Elimination (PRE, [(*)](DBLP:journals/toplas/KennedyCLLTC99)).

The graph IR reflects ''must before'' (ordering) and ''must inside''
(containment) relations, as well as anti-dependence and frequency. These
relations are implemented by the following methods, which can be overridden
for new definition classes:

    def syms(e: Any): List[Sym[Any]]        // value dependence (must before)
    def softSyms(e: Any): List[Sym[Any]]    // anti dependence (must not after)
    def boundSyms(e: Any): List[Sym[Any]]   // nesting dependence (must not outside)
    def symsFreq(e: Any): List[(Sym[Any],   // frequency information (classify
      Double)]                              // sym as 'hot', 'normal', 'cold')

To give an example, `boundSyms` applied to a loop node
`RangeForeach(range,idx,body)` with index variable `idx` would return
`List(idx)` to denote that `idx` is fixed ''inside'' the loop expression.

Given a subgraph and a list of result nodes, the goal is to identify the graph
nodes that should form the ''current'' level, as opposed to those that should
remain in some ''inner'' scope, to be scheduled later. We will reason about
the paths on which statements can be reached from the result. The first idea
is to retain all nodes on the current level that are reachable on a path that
does not cross any conditionals, i.e. that has no ''cold'' refs. Nodes only
used from conditionals will be pushed down. However, this approach does not
yet reflect the precedence of loops. If a loop is top-level,  then
conditionals inside the loop (even if deeply nested) should not prevent
hoisting of statements. So we refine the characterization to retain all nodes
that are reachable on a path that does not cross top-level conditionals.




\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{fig_graph_nesting.pdf}
\end{center}
\caption{\label{fig:codemotion}Graph IR with regular and nesting edges (boundSyms, dotted line) as
used for code motion.}
\end{figure}


This leads to a simple iterative algorithm: Starting with the known top level
statements, nodes reachable via normal links are added and for each hot ref,
we follow nodes that are forced inside until we reach one that can become top-
level again.


Code Motion Algorithm: Compute the set $L$ of top level statements for the
current block, from a set of available statements $E$, a set of forced-inside
statements $G \subseteq E$ and a block result $R$.

1. Start with $L$ containing the known top level statements, initially the
(available) block result $R \cap E$.

2. Add to $L$ all nodes reachable from $L$ via normal links (neither hot nor
cold) through $E-G$ (not forced inside).

3. For each hot ref from $L$ to a statement in $E-L$, follow any links through
$G$, i.e. the nodes that are forced inside, if there are any. The first
non-forced-inside nodes (the ''hot fringe'') become top level as well
(add to $L$).

4. Continue with 2 until a fixpoint is reached.

To implement this algorithm, we need to determine the set `G` of nodes that
are forced inside and may not be part of the top level.  We start with the
block result `R` and a graph `E` that has all unnecessary  nodes removed (DCE
already performed):

    E = R $\cup$ syms(E map findDefinition)

We then need a way to find all uses of a given symbol `s`, up to but not
including the node where the symbol is bound:

    U(s) = {s} $\cup$ { g $\in$ E | syms(findDefinition(g)) $\cap$ U(s) $\ne\emptyset$
                      && s $\notin$ boundSyms(findDefinition(g))) }

We collect all bound symbols and their dependencies. These cannot live on the
current level, they are forced inside:

    B = boundSyms (E map findDefinition)
    G = union (B map U)    // must inside

Computing `U(s)` for many symbols `s` individually is costly but
implementations can exploit considerable sharing to optimize the computation
of `G`.

The iteration above uses `G` to follow forced-inside  nodes after a hot ref
until a node is found that can be moved to the top level.


Let us consider a few examples to build some intuition about the code motion
behavior. In the code below, the starred conditional is on the fringe (first
statement that can be outside) and on a hot path (through the loop). Thus it
will be hoisted. Statement `foo` will be moved inside:

    loop { i =>                z = if* (x) foo
      if (i > 0)               loop { i =>
        if* (x)                  if (i > 0)
          foo                      z
    }                          }

The situation changes if the inner conditional is forced inside by a value
dependency.  Now statement `foo` is on the hot fringe and becomes top level.

    loop { i =>                z = foo*
      if (x)                   loop { i =>
        if (i > 0)               if (x)
          foo*                     if (i > 0)
    }                                z
                               }

For loops inside conditionals, the containing statements will be moved inside
(relative to the current level).

    if (x)                     if (x)
      loop { i =>                z = foo
        foo                      loop { i =>
      }                            z
                                 }


### Pathological Cases

The described algorithm works well and is reasonably efficient in practice.
Being a heuristic, it cannot be optimal in all cases. Future versions could
employ more elaborate cost models instead of the simple hot/cold distinction.
One case worth mentioning is when a  statement is used only in conditionals
but in different conditionals:

    z = foo                    if (x)
    if (x)                       foo
      z                        if (y)
    if (y)                       foo
      z

In this situation `foo` will be duplicated. Often this duplication is
beneficial because `foo` can be optimized together with other statements
inside  the branches. In general of course there is a danger of slowing down
the program if both conditions are likely to be true at the same time. In that
case it would be a good idea anyways to restructure the program to factor out
the common criteria into a separate test.


### Scheduling

Once we have determined which statements should occur on which level, we have
to come up with an ordering for the statements. Before starting the code
motion algorithm, we sort the input graph in topological order and we will use
the same order for the final result. For the purpose of sorting, we include
anti-dependencies in the topological sort although they are disregarded during
dead code elimination.  A bit of care must be taken though: If we introduce
loops or recursive  functions the graph can be cyclic, in which case no
topological order exists. However, cycles are caused only by inner nodes
pointing back to outer nodes and for sorting purposes we can remove these
back-edges to obtain an acyclic graph.


## Tree-Like Traversals and Transformers

To generate code or to perform transformation by iterated staging (see
[above](#sec:310treeTrans)) we need to turn our graph back into a tree. The
interface to code motion allows us to build a generic tree-like traversal over
our graph structure:

    trait Traversal {
      val IR: Expressions; import IR._
      // perform code motion, maintaining current scope
      def focusExactScope(r: Exp[Any])(body: List[Stm[Any]] => A): A
      // client interface
      def traverseBlock[T](b: Block[T]): Unit =
        focusExactScope(b.res) { levelScope =>
          levelScope.foreach(traverseStm)
        }
      def traverseStm[T](s: Stm[T]): Unit = blocks(s).foreach(traverseBlock)
    }

This is useful for other analyses as well, but in particular for building
transformers that traverse one graph in a tree like fashion and create another
graph analogous to the appraoach above [above](#sec:310treeTrans). The
implementation of trait `ForwardTransformer` carries over almost unmodified.








# Effects
\label{sec:321}

To ensure that operations can be safely moved around (and for other
optimizations as well), a compiler needs to reason about their possible side
effects. The graph representation presented so far is pure and does not
mention effects at all. However all the necessary ingredients are already
there: We can keep track of side effects simply by making  effect dependencies
explicit in the graph. In essence, we turn all programs into functional
programs by adding an invisible state parameter (similar in spirit but not
identical to SSA conversion).

## Simple Effect Domain

We first consider global effects like console output via `println`.
Distinguishing only between ''has no effect'' and ''may have effect'' means
that all operations on mutable data structures,  including reads, have to be
serialized along with all other side effects.

By default, we assume operations to be pure (i.e. side-effect free).
Programmers can designate effectful operations by using `reflectEffect`
instead of the implicit conversion `toAtom` which internally delegates to
`reflectPure`. Console output, for example, is implemented like this:

    def print(x: Exp[String]): Exp[Unit] = reflectEffect(Print(x))

The call to `reflectEffect` adds the passed IR node to a list of effects for
the  current block. Effectful expressions will attract dependency edges
between them to  ensure serialization.  A compound expression such as a loop
or a conditional will internally use `reifyBlock`, which attaches nesting
edges to the effectful nodes contained in the block.

Internally, `reflectEffect` creates `Reflect` nodes that keep track of the
context dependencies:

    var context: List[Exp[Any]]
    case class Reflect[T](d: Def[T], es: List[Sym[Any]]) extends Def[T]
    def reflectEffect[T](d: Def[T]): Exp[T] = createDefinition(Reflect(d, context)).sym

The context denotes the ''current state''. Since state can be seen as an
abstraction of effect history, we just define context as a list of the
previous effects.

In this simple model, all effect dependencies are uniformly encoded in the IR
graph.  Rewriting, CSE, DCE, and Code Motion are disabled for effectful
statements (very pessimistic). Naturally we would like something more  fine
grained for mutable data.


## Fine Grained Effects: Tracking Mutations per Allocation Site

We can add other, more fine grained, variants of `reflectEffect` which allow
tracking mutations per allocation site or other, more general abstractions of
the heap that provide a partitioning into regions. Aliasing and sharing of
heap objects such as arrays can be tracked via optional annotations on IR
nodes. Reads and writes of mutable objects are automatically serialized and
appropriate dependencies inserted to guarantee a legal execution schedule.

Effectful statements are tagged with an effect summary that further describes
the effect. The summary can be extracted via `summarizeEffects`, and  there
are some operations on summaries (like `orElse`, `andThen`) to  combine
effects. As an example consider the definition of conditionals, which computes
the compound effect from the effects of the two branches:

    def __ifThenElse[T](cond: Exp[Boolean], thenp: => Rep[T], elsep: => Rep[T]) {
      val a = reifyBlock(thenp)
      val b = reifyBlock(elsep)
      val ae = summarizeEffects(a) // get summaries of the branches
      val be = summarizeEffects(b)
      val summary = ae orElse be   // compute summary for whole expression
      reflectEffect(IfThenElse(cond, a, b), summary)  // reflect compound expression
                                                      // (effect might be none, i.e. pure)
    }

To specify effects more precisely for different kinds of IR nodes, we add
further `reflect` methods:

    reflectSimple     // a 'simple' effect: serialized with other simple effects
    reflectMutable    // an allocation of a mutable object; result guaranteed unique
    reflectWrite(v)   // a write to v: must refer to a mutable allocation
                      // (reflectMutable IR node)
    reflectRead(v)    // a read of allocation v (not used by programmer,
                      // inserted implicitly)
    reflectEffect(s)  // provide explicit summary s, specify may/must info for
                      // multiple reads/writes

The framework will serialize reads and writes so to respect data and anti-
dependency with respect  to the referenced allocations. To make this work we
also need to keep track of sharing and  aliasing. Programmers can provide for
their IR nodes  a list of input expressions which the result of the IR node
may  alias, contain, extract from or copy from.

    def aliasSyms(e: Any): List[Sym[Any]]
    def containSyms(e: Any): List[Sym[Any]]
    def extractSyms(e: Any): List[Sym[Any]]
    def copySyms(e: Any): List[Sym[Any]]

These four pieces of information correspond to the possible pointer
operations `x = y`, `*x = y`, `x = *y` and `*x = *y`.  Assuming an operation
`y = Foo(x)`, `x` should be returned in the following cases:

    x $\in$ aliasSyms(y)      if y = x      // if then else
    x $\in$ containSyms(y)    if *y = x     // array update
    x $\in$ extractSyms(y)    if y = *x     // array apply
    x $\in$ copySyms(y)       if *y = *x    // array clone

Here, `y = x` is understood as ''y may be equal to x'',  `*y = x` as
''dereferencing y (at some index) may return x'' etc.





### Restricting Possible Effects

It is often useful to restrict the allowed effects somewhat to make analysis
more tractable and provide better optimizations. One model, which works
reasonably well for many applications,  is to prohibit sharing and aliasing
between mutable objects. Furthermore, read and write operations must
unambiguously identify the allocation site of the object being  accessed. The
framework uses the aliasing and points-to information to enforce these rules
and to keep track of immutable objects that  point to mutable data. This is to
make sure the right serialization  dependencies and `reflectRead` calls are
inserted for operations that may reference mutable state in an indirect way.





# (Chapter 3) Advanced Optimizations
\label{chap:330opt}

We have seen [above](#chap:320graphs) how many classic compiler  optimizations
can be applied to the IR generated from embedded programs  in a
straightforward way.  Due to the structure of the IR, these optimizations all
operate in an essentially global way, at the level of domain operations. In
this chapter we discuss some other advanced optimizations that can be
implemented on the graph IR. We present more elaborate examples for how these
optimizations benefit  larger use cases later.


# Rewriting

Many optimizations that are traditionally implemented using an iterative
dataflow analysis followed by a transformation pass can also be expressed
using various flavors of rewriting. Whenever possible we tend to prefer the
rewriting version because rewrite rules are easy to specify separately and do
not require programmers to define  abstract interpretation lattices.

## Context-Sensitive Rewriting

Smart constructors in our graph IR can be context sensitive. For example,
reads of local variables examine the current effect context to find the last
assignment, implementing a form of copy propagation (middle):

    var x = 7     var x = 7    println(5)
    x = 5         x = 5
    println(x)    println(5)

This renders the stores dead, and they will be removed by dead code
elimination later (right).

## Speculative Rewriting: Combining Analyses and Transformations

Many optimizations are mutually beneficial.  In the presence of loops,
optimizations need to make optimistic assumptions for the supporting analysis
to obtain best results.  If multiple analyses are run separately, each of them
effectively makes pessimistic assumptions about the outcome of all others.
Combined analyses avoid the phase ordering problem by solving everything at
the same time. Lerner, Grove, and Chambers showed a method of composing
optimizations by interleaving analyses and transformations
[(*)](lerner02composingdataflow).  We use a modified version of their
algorithm that works on structured loops instead of CFGs and using dependency
information and rewriting instead of explicit data flow lattices. Usually,
rewriting is semantics preserving, i.e. pessimistic. The idea is to drop that
assumption. As a corollary, we need to rewrite speculatively and be able to
rollback to a previous state to get optimistic optimization. The algorithm
proceeds as follows: for each encountered loop, apply all possible transforms
to the loop body, given empty initial assumptions.  Analyze the result of the
transformation: if any new information is discovered throw away the
transformed loop body and retransform the original with updated assumptions.
Repeat until the analysis result has reached a fixpoint and keep the last
transformation as result.

Here is an example of speculative rewriting, showing the initial optimistic
iteration (middle), with the fixpoint (right) reached after the second
iteration:

    var x = 7                 var x = 7          var x = 7 //dead
    var c = 0                 var c = 0          var c = 0
    while (c < 10) {          while (true) {     while (c < 10) {
      if (x < 10) print("!")    print("!")         print("!")
      else x = c                print(7)           print(7)
      print(x)                  print(0)           print(c)
      print(c)                  c = 1              c += 1
      c += 1                  }                  }
    }

This algorithm allows us to do all forward data flow analyses and transforms
in one uniform, combined pass driven by rewriting. In the example above,
during the initial  iteration (middle), separately specified rewrites for
variables and conditionals work together to  determine that `x=c` is never
executed. At the end of the loop body we discover the write to `c`, which
invalidates our initial optimistic assumption `c=0`.  We rewrite the original
body again with the augmented information (right).  This time there is no
additional knowledge discovered so the last speculative rewrite becomes the
final one.


## Delayed Rewriting and Multi-Level IR
\label{sec:330delayed}

For some transformations, e.g. data structure representation lowering, we do
not execute rewrites now, but later, to give further immediate rewrites a
change to match on the current expression before it is rewritten. This is a
simple form of prioritizing different rewrites, in this case optimizations
over lowerings. It also happens to be a central idea behind telescoping
languages [(*)](kennedy05telescoping).

We perform simplifications eagerly, after each transform phase. Thus we
guarantee that CSE, DCE etc. have been applied on high-level operations before
they are translated into lower-level equivalents, on which optimizations would
be much harder to apply.

We call the mechanism to express this form of rewrites _delayed_ rewriting.
Here is an example that delayedly  transforms a plus operation on Vectors into
an operation on arrays:

    def infix_plus(a: Rep[Vector[Double]], b: Rep[Vector[Double]]) = {
      VectorPlus(a,b) atPhase(lowering) {
        val data = Array.fill(a.length) { i => a(i) + b(i) }
        vector_with_backing_array(data)
      }
    }

The transformation is only carried out at phase `lowering`. Before that, the
IR node remains a `VectorPlus` node, which allows other smart constructor
rewrites to kick in that   match their arguments against `VectorPlus`.

Technically, delayed rewriting is implemented using a worklist transformer
that keeps track of the rewrites to be performed during the next iteration.
The added convenience over using a transformer directly is that programmers
can define simple lowerings inline without needing to subclass and install a
transformer trait.




# Splitting and Combining Statements

Since our graph IR contains structured expressions, optimizations need to
work with compound statements. Reasoning about compound statements is not
easy: For example, our simple dead code elimination algorithm will not  be
able to remove only pieces of a compound expression. Our solution is simple
yet effective: We eagerly split many kinds of compound statements, assuming
optimistically that only parts will be needed. We find out which parts through
the regular DCE algorithm. Afterwards we reassemble the remaining pieces.

## Effectful Statements

A good example of statement splitting are effectful conditionals:

    var a, b, c = ...      var a, b, c = ...      var a, c = ...
    if (cond) {            if (cond)              if (cond)
      a = 9                  a = 9                  a = 9
      b = 1                if (cond)              else
    } else                   b = 1                  c = 3
      c = 3                if (!cond)             println(a+c)
    println(a+c)             c = 3
                           println(a+c)

From the conditional in the initial program (left), splitting creates three
separate expressions, one for each referenced variable (middle). Pattern
rewrites are executed when building the split nodes but do not have any effect
here. Dead code elimination removes the middle one because variable b is not
used, and the remaining conditionals are merged back together (right). Of
course successful merging requires to keep track of how expressions have been
split.







## Data Structures
\label{sec:361struct}

Splitting is also very effective for data structures, as often only parts of a
data structure are used or modified. We can define a generic framework for
data structures:

    trait StructExp extends BaseExp {
      abstract class StructTag
      case class Struct[T](tag: StructTag, elems: Map[String,Rep[Any]]) extends Def[T]
      case class Field[T](struct: Rep[Any], key: String) extends Def[T]

      def struct[T](tag: StructTag, elems: Map[String,Rep[Any]]) = Struct(tag, elems)
      def field[T](struct: Rep[Any], key: String): Rep[T] = struct match {
        case Def(Struct(tag, elems)) => elems(index).asInstanceOf[Rep[T]]
        case _ => Field[T](struct, index)
      }
    }

There are two IR node types, one for structure creation and one for field
access. The structure creation node contains a hash map that holds (static)
field identifiers and (dynamic) field values. It also contains a `tag` that
can be used to hold further information about the nature of the data
structure. The interface for field accesses is method `field`, which pattern
matches on its argument and, if that is a `Struct` creation, looks up the
desired value from the embedded hash map.


We continue by adding a rule that makes the result of a conditional a
`Struct` if the branches return `Struct`:

    override def ifThenElse[T](cond: Rep[Boolean], a: Rep[T], b: Rep[T]) =
    (a,b) match {
      case (Def(Struct(tagA,elemsA)), Def(Struct(tagB, elemsB))) =>
        assert(tagA == tagB)
        assert(elemsA.keySet == elemsB.keySet)
        Struct(tagA, elemsA.keySet map (k => ifThenElse(cond, elemsA(k), elemsB(k))))
      case _ => super.ifThenElse(cond,a,b)
    }

Similar rules are added for many of the other core IR node types. DCE can
remove individual elements of the data structure that are never used. During
code generation and tree traversals, the remaining parts of the  split
conditional are merged back together.

We will study examples of this struct abstraction [here](#sec:455struct) and
an extension to unions and inheritance in [here](#sec:455inherit).

## Representation Conversion
\label{sec:360soa}

A natural extension of this mechanism is a generic array-of-struct to struct-
of-array transform.  The definition is analogous to that of conditionals. We
override the array constructor `arrayFill`  that represents expressions of the
form \c|Array.fill(n) { i => body }| to create a struct with an array for each
component of the body if the body itself is a Struct:

    override def arrayFill[T](size: Exp[Int], v: Sym[Int], body: Def[T]) = body match {
      case Block(Def(Struct(tag, elems))) =>
        struct[T](ArraySoaTag(tag,size),
          elems.map(p => (p._1, arrayFill(size, v, Block(p._2)))))
      case _ => super.arrayFill(size, v, body)
    }

Note that we tag the result struct with an `ArraySoaTag` to keep track of the
transformation. This class is defined as follows:

    case class ArraySoaTag(base: StructTag, len: Exp[Int]) extends StructTag


We also override the methods that are used to access array elements and return
the length of an array to do the right thing for transformed arrays:

    override def infix_apply[T](a: Rep[Array[T]], i: Rep[Int]) = a match {
      case Def(Struct(ArraySoaTag(tag,len),elems)) =>
        struct[T](tag, elems.map(p => (p._1, infix_apply(p._2, i))))
      case _ => super.infix_at(a,i)
    }
    override def infix_length[T](a: Rep[Array[T]]): Rep[Int] = a match {
      case Def(Struct(ArraySoaTag(tag, len), elems)) => len
      case _ => super.infix_length(a)
    }

Examples for this struct of array transformation are shown in
[here](#sec:455structUse) and [here](#chap:460fusionUse).


# Loop Fusion and Deforestation
\label{sec:360fusionComp}

The use of independent and freely composable traversal operations such as
`v.map(..).sum` is preferable to explicitly coded loops. However, naive
implementations of these operations would be expensive and entail lots of
intermediate data structures.  We provide a novel loop fusion algorithm for
data parallel loops and traversals (see [here](#chap:460fusionUse) for
examples of use). The core loop abstraction is

    loop(s) $\overline{\mathtt{{x=}}\G}$ { i => $\overline{E[ \mathtt{x} \yield \mathtt{f(i)} ]}$ }

where `s` is the size of the loop and `i` the loop variable ranging over
$[0,\mathtt{s})$. A loop can compute multiple results $\overline{\mathtt{x}}$,
each of which is associated with a generator $\G$, one of `Collect`, which
creates a flat array-like data structure, `Reduce($\oplus$)`, which reduces
values with the associative operation $\oplus$, or `Bucket($\G$)`, which
creates a nested data structure, grouping generated values by key and applying
$\G$ to those with matching key. Loop bodies consist of yield statements `x
$\yield$ f(i)` that define values passed to generators (of this loop or an
outer loop), embedded in some outer context $E[.]$ that might consist of other
loops or conditionals. For `Bucket` generators yield takes (key,value) pairs.

The fusion rules are summarized below:

    Generator kinds: $\mathcal{G} ::= $ `Collect` $|$ `Reduce($\oplus$)` $|$ `Bucket($\mathcal{G`$)} \\
    Yield statement: xs $\yield$ x \\
    Contexts: $E[.] ::= $ loops and conditionals

    Horizontal case (for all types of generators):

       loop(s) x1=$\G_1$ { i1 => $E_1[$ x1 $\yield$ f1(i1) $]$ }
       loop(s) y1=$\G_2$ { i2 => $E_2[$ x2 $\yield$ f2(i2) $]$ }
    ---------------------------------------------------------------------
     loop(s) x1=$\G_1$, x2=$\G_2$ { i =>
              $E_1[$ x1 $\yield$ f1(i) $]$; $E_2[$ x2 $\yield$ f2(i) $]$ }

    Vertical case (consume collect):

      loop(s) x1=Collect { i1 => $E_1[$ x1 $\yield$ f1(i1) $]$ }
    loop(x1.size) x2=$\G$ { i2 => $E_2[$ x2 $\yield$ f2(x1(i2)) $]$ }
    ---------------------------------------------------------------------
   loop(s) x1=Collect, x2=$\G$ { i =>
                $E_1[$ x1 $\yield$ f1(i); $E_2[$ x2 $\yield$ f2(f1(i)) $]]$ }

    Vertical case (consume bucket collect):

            loop(s) x1=Bucket(Collect) { i1 =>
                $E_1[$ x1 $\yield$ (k1(i1), f1(i1)) $]$ }
      loop(x1.size) x2=Collect { i2 =>
        loop(x1(i2).size) y=$\G$ { j =>
          $E_2[$ y $\yield$ f2(x1(i2)(j)) $]$ }; x2 $\yield$ y }
    ---------------------------------------------------------------------
    loop(s) x1=Bucket(Collect), x2=Bucket($\G$) { i =>
        $E_1[$ x1 $\yield$ (k1(i), f1(i));
            $E_2[$ x2 $\yield$ (k1(i), f2(f1(i))) $]]$ }


This model is expressive enough to model many common collection operations:

    x=v.map(f)     loop(v.size) x=Collect { i => x $\yield$ f(v(i)) }
    x=v.sum        loop(v.size) x=Reduce(+) { i =>  x $\yield$ v(i) }
    x=v.filter(p)  loop(v.size) x=Collect { i => if (p(v(i)))
                                                    x $\yield$ v(i) }
    x=v.flatMap(f) loop(v.size) x=Collect { i => val w = f(v(i))
                             loop(w.size) { j => x $\yield$ w(j) }}
    x=v.distinct   loop(v.size) x=Bucket(Reduce(rhs)) { i =>
                                            x $\yield$ (v(i), v(i)) }

Other operations are accommodated by generalizing slightly. Instead of
implementing a `groupBy` operation that returns a sequence of (Key,
Seq[Value]) pairs we can return the keys and values in separate data
structures. The equivalent of `(ks,vs)=v.groupBy(k).unzip` is:

    loop(v.size) ks=Bucket(Reduce(rhs)),vs=Bucket(Collect) { i =>
      ks $\yield$ (v(i), v(i)); vs $\yield$ (v(i), v(i)) }


In the rules above, multiple instances of `f1(i)` are subject to CSE and not
evaluated twice. Substituting `x1(i2)` with `f1(i)` will remove a reference to
`x1`. If `x1` is not used anywhere else, it will also be subject to DCE.
Within fused loop bodies, unifying index variable `i` and substituting
references will trigger the uniform forward transformation pass. Thus, fusion
not only removes intermediate data structures but also provides additional
optimization opportunities inside fused loop bodies (including fusion of
nested loops).

Fixed size array construction `Array(a,b,c)` can be expressed as

    loop(3) x=Collect { case 0 => x $\yield$ a
                        case 1 => x $\yield$ b case 2 => x $\yield$ c }

and concatenation `xs ++ ys` as `Array(xs,ys).flatMap(i=>i)`:

    loop(2) x=Collect { case 0 => loop(xs.size) { i => x $\yield$ xs(i) }
                        case 1 => loop(ys.size) { i => x $\yield$ ys(i) }}

Fusing these patterns with a consumer will duplicate the consumer code into
each match  case. Implementations should have some kind of cutoff value to
prevent code explosion. Code generation does not need to emit actual loops for
fixed array constructions but can just produce the right sequencing of yield
operations.


Examples for the fusion algorithm are shown [here](#chap:460fusionUse).


*/